Лимб это геодезия: Для чего нужен теодолит?

алидада теодолита — это… Что такое алидада теодолита? 

алидада теодолита

vernier plate

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь. 2001.

• алидада с диоптрами
• алидада-высотомер

Смотреть что такое «алидада теодолита» в других словарях:

• АЛИДАДА — (араб. al hada линейка). Металлическая линейка с узкими прорезами или с вертикальными пластинками (диоптрами), которая, вместе с разделенным кругом, в центре которого она вращается, составляет часть почти всех угломерных снарядов. Словарь… …   Словарь иностранных слов русского языка

• Алидада — и визир …   Википедия

• Горизонтальный круг теодолита — предназначен для измерения горизонтальных углов и состоит из лимба и алидады. Лимб представляет собой стеклянное кольцо, на скошенном крае которого нанесены равные деления с помощью автоматической делительной машины. Цена деления лимба (величина… …   Википедия

• Теодолит — середины 20 го века Теодолит  измерительный прибор для измерения горизонтальных и вертикальных углов при геодезических работах, топографических, геодезических и маркшейдерских съёмках, в строительстве и т. п. Основной рабоч …   Википедия

• ГОСТ 21830-76: Приборы геодезические. Термины и определения — Терминология ГОСТ 21830 76: Приборы геодезические. Термины и определения оригинал документа: 50. Алидада D. Alhidade F. Alidade Определения термина из разных документов: Алидада 80. Ампула уровня D. Röhre E. Level vial F. Fiole de niveau… …   Словарь-справочник терминов нормативно-технической документации

• Теодолит —         геодезический инструмент (См. Геодезические инструменты) для определения направлений и измерения горизонтальных и вертикальных углов при геодезических работах, топографических и маркшейдерских съёмках, в строительстве и т. п. (см.… …   Большая советская энциклопедия

• Универсальный инструмент —         универсал в астрономии и геодезии, переносный угломерный инструмент, служащий для измерения углов в вертикальной и горизонтальной плоскостях. С помощью У. и. по наблюдениям звёзд и Солнца определяют географические координаты места,… …   Большая советская энциклопедия

• теодолит — геодезический инструмент для измерения на местности горизонтальных и вертикальных углов. Состоит из зрительной трубы, вращающегося вокруг вертикальной оси горизонтального круга (лимба) с алидадой, на подставку которой опирается горизонтальная ось …   Энциклопедия техники

• Гиротеодолит —         гироскопическое визирное устройство, предназначенное для ориентирования туннелей, шахт, топографической привязки и др. Г. служит для определения азимута (пеленга) ориентируемого направления и широко используется при проведении… …   Большая советская энциклопедия

• теодолит — [тэ], а; м. [от греч. theaomai смотрю и dolichos длинный] Угломерный инструмент, применяемый в геодезии, астрономии, в инженерных работах и т.п. Труба теодолита. Установить т. ◁ Теодолитный, ая, ое. Т. треножник. Т. прибор (=теодолит). Т ая… …   Энциклопедический словарь

• Корпус военных топографов — Основание Указ императора Александра I 28 января 1822 года Ликвидация Постановление СНК СССР 1918 год Корпус военных топографов (КВТ) (до 1866  Корпус топографов)  был организован в 1822 году для централизов …   Википедия

Теодолит, его составные части — Студопедия

Измерения горизонтальных проекций углов между линиями местности производят геодезическим угломерным прибором теодолитом. Для этого теодолит имеет горизонтальный угломерный круг с градусными делениями, называемый лимбом. Стороны угла проектируют на лимб с использованием подвижной визирной плоскости зрительной трубы. Она образуется визирной осью трубы при её вращении вокруг горизонтальной оси. Данную плоскость поочередно совмещают со сторонами угла ВА и ВС, последовательно направляя визирную ось зрительной трубы на точки А и С. При помощи специального отсчетного приспособления алидады, которая находится над лимбом соосно с ним и перемещается вместе с визирной плоскостью, на лимбе фиксируют начало и конец дуги a1c1 (см. рис. 40), беря отсчеты по градусным делениям. Разность взятых отсчетов является значением измеряемого угла β.

Лимб и алидада, используемые для измерения горизонтальных углов, составляют в теодолите горизонтальный круг. Ось вращения алидады горизонтального круга называют основной осью теодолита.

В теодолите также имеется вертикальный круг с лимбом и алидадой, служащий для измерения вертикальных проекций углов – углов наклона. Принято считать углы наклона выше горизонта положительными, а ниже горизонта – отрицательными. Лимб вертикального круга обычно наглухо скреплён со зрительной трубой и вращается вместе с ней вокруг горизонтальной оси теодолита.

Перед измерением углов центр лимба с помощью отвеса или оптического центрира устанавливают на отвесной линии, проходящей через вершину измеряемого угла, а плоскость лимба приводят в горизонтальное положение, используя с этой целью три подъемных винта 3 и цилиндрический уровень 12 (рис. 41). В результате данных действий основная ось теодолита должна совпасть с отвесной линией, проходящей через вершину измеряемого угла.

Рис. 41. Устройство теодолита 4Т30П:

1 – головка штатива; 2 – основание; 3 – подъемный винт; 4 – наводящий винт алидады; 5 – закрепительный винт алидады; 6 – наводящий винт зрительной трубы; 7 – окуляр зрительной трубы; 8 – предохранительный колпачок сетки нитей зрительной трубы; 9 – кремальера; 10 – закрепительный винт зрительной трубы; 11 – объектив зрительной трубы; 12 – цилиндрический уровень; 13 – кнопочный винт для поворота лимба; 14 – закрепительный винт; 15 – окуляр отсчетного микроскопа с диоптрийным кольцом; 16 – зеркальце для подсветки штрихов отсчетного микроскопа; 17– колонка; 18 – ориентир-буссоль; 19 – вертикальный круг; 20 – визир; 21 – диоптрийное кольцо окуляра зрительной трубы; 22 – исправительные винты цилиндрического уровня; 23 – подставка.

Для установки, настройки и наведения теодолита на цели в нем имеется система винтов: становой и подъемные винты, закрепительные (зажимные) и наводящие (микрометренные) винты, исправительные (юстировочные) винты.

Становым винтом теодолит крепят к головке штатива, подъемными винтами – горизонтируют.

Закрепительными винтами скрепляют подвижные части теодолита (лимб, алидаду, зрительную трубу) с неподвижными. Наводящими винтами сообщают малое и плавное вращение закрепленным частям.

Чтобы теодолит обеспечивал получение неискаженных результатов измерений, он должен удовлетворять соответствующим геометрическим и оптико-механическим условиям. Действия, связанные с проверкой этих условий, называют поверками. Если какое-либо условие не соблюдается, с помощью исправительных винтов производят юстировку прибора.

90000 Lower limb prosthetics — PM & R KnowledgeNow 90001 90002 1. OVERVIEW AND DESCRIPTION 90003 90004 Definitions 90005 90006 A prosthesis is an artificial substitute for a missing body part. 90007 90006 A lower limb prosthesis refers to a prosthesis that replaces any part of the lower limb to restore the functional and / or cosmetic purpose of the lower limb. This may include artificial components that replace the hip, thigh, knee, ankle and foot. 90007 90010 90006 (Photo credit Hanger Clinic) 90007 90002 2.RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE 90003 90015 90016 90004 90018 Post Amputation Process and Prosthetic Evaluation 90019 90005 90006 90018 Pre- 90019 90018 prosthetic 90019 90018 training 90019 90007 90006 After the patient has an amputation in the lower extremity, they will remain in the acute care hospital until they are medically stable. After that time they may be either transferred to a skilled nursing facility (SNF), acute inpatient rehabilitation facility or discharged home with homecare services.The patients that are discharged to acute rehabilitation facilities often have better functional outcomes than those patients with any other discharge destination. 90030 (1) 90031 During the initial time after the acute care hospital the focus is to determine if the patient is a candidate for a prosthesis based on their functional level, potential for progress and to prepare the residual limb for a prosthesis if the patient is a candidate. This includes training in mobility and activities of daily living (ADLs) without the prosthesis, education in skin care, muscle strengthening, pain reduction and management and also shaping and shrinking of the residual limb.Specifically, early range of motion and desensitization of the scar from the amputation are important. There are many different options for discharge after the acute hospital care stay, however, receiving inpatient rehabilitation care immediately after acute care was associated with reduced mortality, fewer subsequent amputations, greater acquisition of prosthetic devices, and greater medical stability than for patients who were sent home or to an SNF. 90030 (1) 90031 Acute inpatient rehabilitation facilities stabilize chronic problems such as renal failure and diabetes and optimize surgical wound management which may lead to improved outcomes.90007 90006 90018 Prosthetic 90019 90018 Evaluation 90019 90007 90006 Initial evaluation to determine if a patient is a candidate for a lower limb prosthesis should include the following assessment of the patient’s history: 90007 90015 90016 The patient’s prior level of function and activity level, including level of independence in ADLs, and any assistive devices previously utilized for ambulation 90045 90016 The patient’s geographical location and proximity to medical care and prosthetic lab 90045 90016 Etiology of and time since amputation 90045 90016 General medical condition, including comorbidities such as heart and lung disease, diabetes, vascular disease, and polyneuropathy 90045 90016 Employment 90045 90016 Recreational pursuits and sports participation 90045 90016 Goals of patient and family 90045 90016 Family and caregiver support 90045 90060 90006 The patient must also be physically and mentally evaluated to determine the appropriate prosthetic prescription, complete assessment includes: 90007 90015 90016 Assessment of cognitive function necessary to care for and don / doff the prosthesis, as well as the ability to learn techniques and strategies in therapy.90045 90016 Function of the upper limbs 90045 90016 Function of the opposite lower limb 90045 90016 Residual limb strength, shape, length, and condition. This assessment should include skin condition, sensation, and circulation of the amputation site. 90045 90016 Stability of joints and ligaments of the residual limb 90045 90016 Presence or absence of any joint contractures in any of the limbs 90045 90016 Weight of the patient (as some prosthetic components have weight limits) 90045 90060 90006 Based on the above gathered information, physical examination, and potential for progress, the amputee patient is classified to a particular functional level.The K levels were adopted by the federal government to clarify which lower limb prosthetic components (knee, foot, and ankle) should be used for patients depending on their functional levels. The higher the K level the more potential for prosthetic ambulation. 90007 90081 90082 90083 90084 90018 K level 90019 90087 90084 90018 Description 90019 90087 90092 90083 90084 90018 K0 90019 90087 90084 Does not have the ability or potential to ambulate or transfer safely with or without assistance, and a prosthesis does not enhance quality of life or mobility.90087 90092 90083 90084 90018 K1 90019 90087 90084 Has the ability or potential to use a prosthesis for transfers or ambulation on level surfaces at fixed cadence. Typical of the limited and unlimited household ambulator. 90087 90092 90083 90084 90018 K2 90019 90087 90084 Has the ability or potential for ambulation with low-level environmental barriers such as curbs, stairs, and uneven surfaces. Typical of the limited community ambulator. 90087 90092 90083 90084 90018 K3 90019 90087 90084 Has the ability or potential for ambulation with variable cadence.Typical of the community ambulator who can traverse most environmental barriers and has vocational, therapeutic, or exercise activity that demands prosthetic utilization beyond simple locomotion. 90087 90092 90083 90084 90018 K4 90019 90087 90084 Has the ability or potential for prosthetic ambulation that exceeds basic ambulation skills, exhibiting high-impact, stress, or energy levels. Typical of the prosthetic demands of the child, active adult, or athlete. 90087 90092 90133 90134 90045 90016 90004 90018 Prosthetic Prescription 90019 90005 90045 90060 90006 90018 The initial prosthetic fitting 90019 90007 90006 When preparing a patient’s residual limb for a prosthesis the process includes healing, shrinking and shaping the residual limb appropriately with the use of ace wraps and eventually an elastic shrinker.During this period often the patient’s residual limbs are protected in a rigid protective device. 90007 90149 90006 (Photo credit Hanger Clinic) 90007 90006 The goal of the shrinking and shaping process varies depending on the type of amputation. When there is a plateau in the day to day change in shape of the residual limb the patient with a lower-limb amputation is prescribed and measured for their initial prosthesis. In the past, this was referred to as preparatory or temporary prosthesis, although with the advancement of prosthetic technology this prosthesis is still custom made and can be used for quite some time.It is designed to be strong and can be adjusted for alignment, fit, componentry, etc. With this prosthesis, the patient typically will work with physical and occupational therapists with the goal of achieving independence in ambulation and ADL’s with the prosthesis. While the patient uses this initial prosthesis, the residual limb is expected to continue to shrink, but at a slower pace, and sometimes the shape will change as well. The prosthetic socket often needs to be replaced as the residual limb shrinks, usually within the first 6 months to a year after amputation.When needed, a «definitive» prosthesis is prescribed. This term was often used in the past to describe when the socket, alignment and componentry were no longer requiring change, so that a cosmetic cover could be applied. Most patients at this time choose not to cover their prostheses but to leave the componentry visible. The general public’s acceptance has grown, and this is much more practical for prosthetic management, as continued changes are often necessary. Currently, the semantics of «temporary» and «definitive» prosthesis have fallen by the way-side, as most patients will use their initially prescribed prosthesis until a new one is needed.90007 90006 90018 The prosthesis prescription 90019 90007 90006 The level of amputation determines which components of the lower extremity prosthesis will need to be prescribed. The two most common lower extremity amputations are the transfemoral (above the knee- AK) and the transtibial (below the knee- BK). The major components of a lower limb prosthesis include the socket, interface (where the liner contacts the skin), suspension, pylon / frame, knee unit (if applicable), foot / ankle complex, hip joint (if applicable).90007 90006 Prosthetic interface: The interface is where the prosthesis contacts the residual limb; this can be made of either a soft or hard material. Some common interface options are: pelite liners, urethane liners, thermogel / gel liners, silicone liners, or a hard interface directly with the socket. 90007 90006 Pylon / frame: The prosthetic frame is the method of connecting the prosthetic components together. There are two main types: exoskeletal or endoskeletal. The exoskeletal construction is infrequently used in current practice.This design uses a rigid exterior lamination from the socket down and has a light-weight filler inside. The endoskeletal construction is the most commonly used type of prosthetic frame. This construction uses pipes called pylons to connect the prosthetic components. The pylons can be constructed from aluminum, titanium, stainless steel or any hybrid of these materials. 90007 90006 90018 Hip disarticulation and hemipelvectomy prostheses 90019 90007 90006 The socket encases bilateral iliac crests in the hip disarticulation patient and utilizes abdominal compression in the hemipelvectomy patient.These prostheses must include a hip joint, which may be a ball-and-socket joint or single-axis. 90007 90006 90018 Transfemoral Prostheses 90019 90007 90006 Transfemoral Socket Designs 90007 90006 90018 1. Quadrilateral 90019 90018 socket 90019 is an older socket design that is relatively narrow anterior-to-posterior, with a posterior shelf to enable weight bearing on the ischium. 90007 90182 90006 (Photo credit Hanger Clinic) 90007 90006 90018 2. Ischial containment socket 90019 is more ovoid in shape, with a smaller mediolateral dimension.The posterior and medial walls encase the ischial tuberosity. When compared with the quadrilateral design, the ischial containment socket may distribute pressures more evenly. There are also several variations of this socket, including a flexible inner socket within a rigid frame. One example is the comfortflex socket from Hanger Clinic. 90007 90006 90018 3. Sub-ischial socket 90019 the trimline of this socket falls distal to the ischial tuberosity and relies completely on the thigh musculature for weight bearing.90007 90006 Transfemoral Suspension 90007 90006 1. 90196 Suction 90197 is a common choice for transfemoral suspension, utilizing a one-way valve and liner with concentric rings. 90007 90006 2. Elevated Vacuum Suspension is a derivative of the suction suspension; air is actively drawn from within the socket environment. 90007 90006 3. Distal suspension with a 90196 pin 90197 or 90196 lanyard 90197 is another option. 90007 90006 4. A 90196 pelvic band 90197 or 90196 silesian belt 90197 may be used as the primary suspension or as auxiliary suspension in some patients.90007 90006 90018 Prosthetic Knees 90019 90007 90015 90016 90196 Manual-locking knees 90197 can be locked for patients who require the most stability and must be unlocked for the patient to sit. 90045 90016 90196 Single-axis knees 90197 have a single axis of rotation, and stability is achieved through alignment and the patient’s voluntary control. 90045 90016 90196 Weight activated stance control (safety knees) 90197 these typically used for K1 through K2 functional levels. These are single axis knees with a weight activated locking mechanism.90045 90016 90196 Polycentric knees 90197 consist typically of 4 bars that pivot during flexion, which allows for a changing axis as the patient progresses through the gait cycle. This allows a great deal of knee stability and reduces the protrusion of the knee unit when the patient sits. This is advantageous with a knee disarticulation amputation or a particularly long AK residual limb. 90045 90016 90196 Hydraulics or pneumatic knees 90197 to provide resistance to swing and / or stance phase.These can be adjusted for the patie 90045 90060.90000 Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 90001 90002 An all-female surveying crew in Idaho in 1918. 90003 90004 Surveying 90005 is the technique and science of accurately finding out the position 90006 [1] 90007 of points and the distances and angles between them. These points are usually, but not always, associated with positions on the surface of the Earth. They are often used to make land maps and boundaries for ownership of land. A person who does the surveying is called a surveyor.In order to find the information they need, surveyors use geometry, engineering, trigonometry, mathematics, physics, and law. 90008 90003 Surveying has been very important in the development of the human environment since the beginning of recorded history (ca. 5000 years ago) and it is a requirement planning of nearly every form of construction. Its most common uses are in the fields of transport, building and construction, communications, mapping, and the making of legal boundaries for land ownership.90008 90003 Surveying has existed throughout much of our history. In ancient Egypt, when the Nile River overflowed its banks and washed out farm boundaries, the boundaries were recreated by surveyors using simple geometry. The construction of many of the pyramids, including the Great Pyramids of Giza, built c. 2700 BC, show us that the Egyptians ‘have always used surveying very efficiently. 90008 90003 A 90004 surveyor 90005 is a person who has the skills to accurately find out the position of points and the distances and angles between them.These points are usually, positions on the surface of the Earth. Finding these points is called «surveying». Surveyors are needed to make land maps and boundaries for ownership of land. In order to find the information they need, surveyors use geometry, engineering, trigonometry, mathematics, physics, and law. 90008 90003 There are different types of surveyor. A construction or building surveyor is the person who has to make sure that buildings are being put up in the correct place and fit in with planning and building laws.90006 [2] 90007 A quantity surveyor is the person who keeps track of costs on a building project. A hydrographic surveyor measures points to do with water, such as rivers, lakes and oceans. A marine surveyor is a person who inspects ships. A mine surveyor is the person who finds out the position of underground mines, for example gold mines or coal mines. 90006 [3] 90007 90008 .90000 Invitae Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophy Panel 90001 90002 Assay and technical information 90003 90004 Invitae is a College of American Pathologists (CAP) -accredited and Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) -certified clinical diagnostic laboratory performing full-gene sequencing and deletion / duplication analysis using next-generation sequencing technology (NGS).90005 90004 Our sequence analysis covers clinically important regions of each gene, including coding exons and 10 to 20 base pairs of adjacent intronic sequence on either side of the coding exons in the transcript listed below. In addition, the analysis covers the select non-coding variants specifically defined in the table below. Any variants that fall outside these regions are not analyzed. Any limitations in the analysis of these genes will be listed on the report.Contact client services with any questions. 90005 90004 Based on validation study results, this assay achieves> 99% analytical sensitivity and specificity for single nucleotide variants, insertions and deletions <15bp in length, and exon-level deletions and duplications. Invitae's methods also detect insertions and deletions larger than 15bp but smaller than a full exon but sensitivity for these may be marginally reduced. Invitae's deletion / duplication analysis determines copy number at a single exon resolution at virtually all targeted exons.However, in rare situations, single-exon copy number events may not be analyzed due to inherent sequence properties or isolated reduction in data quality. Certain types of variants, such as structural rearrangements (e.g. inversions, gene conversion events, translocations, etc.) or variants embedded in sequence with complex architecture (e.g. short tandem repeats or segmental duplications), may not be detected. Additionally, it may not be possible to fully resolve certain details about variants, such as mosaicism, phasing, or mapping ambiguity.Unless explicitly guaranteed, sequence changes in the promoter, non-coding exons, and other non-coding regions are not covered by this assay. Please consult the test definition on our website for details regarding regions or types of variants that are covered or excluded for this test. This report reflects the analysis of an extracted genomic DNA sample. In very rare cases, (circulating hematolymphoid neoplasm, bone marrow transplant, recent blood transfusion) the analyzed DNA may not represent the patient's constitutional genome.90005 90010 90011 90012 90013 Gene 90014 90013 Transcript reference 90014 90013 Sequencing analysis 90014 90013 Deletion / Duplication analysis 90014 90021 90022 90023 90012 90025 ANO5 90026 90025 NM_213599.2 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 CAPN3 90026 90025 NM_000070.2 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 CAV3 90026 90025 NM_033337.2 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 DAG1 90026 90025 NM_004393.5 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 DES 90026 90025 NM_001927.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 DMD * 90026 90025 NM_004006.2 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 DNAJB6 90026 90025 NM_058246.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 DYSF 90026 90025 NM_003494.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 FKRP 90026 90025 NM_024301.4 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 FKTN * 90026 90025 NM_001079802.1 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 GAA * 90026 90025 NM_000152.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 GMPPB 90026 90025 NM_013334.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 HNRNPDL 90026 90025 NM_031372.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 ISPD 90026 90025 NM_001101426.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 LIMS2 90026 90025 NM_001136037.2 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 LMNA 90026 90025 NM_170707.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 MYOT 90026 90025 NM_006790.2 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 PLEC 90026 90025 NM_000445.4; NM_201378.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 PNPLA2 90026 90025 NM_020376.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 POMGNT1 90026 90025 NM_017739.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 POMK 90026 90025 NM_032237.4 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 POMT1 90026 90025 NM_007171.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 POMT2 90026 90025 NM_013382.5 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 SGCA 90026 90025 NM_000023.2 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 SGCB 90026 90025 NM_000232.4 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 SGCD 90026 90025 NM_000337.5 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 SGCG 90026 90025 NM_000231.2 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 SMCHD1 90026 90025 NM_015295.2 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 TCAP 90026 90025 NM_003673.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 TNPO3 90026 90025 NM_012470.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 TOR1AIP1 90026 90025 NM_001267578.1 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 TRAPPC11 90026 90025 NM_021942.5 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 TRIM32 90026 90025 NM_012210.3 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90012 90025 TTN * 90026 90025 NM_001267550.2 90026 90025 90026 90025 90026 90021 90364 90365 90004 DMD: Analysis guarantees del / dup detection at single-exon resolution.90367 FKTN: Analysis includes the intronic variant NM_001079802.1: c.647 + 2084G> T (also known as NM_001079802.1: c.648-1243G> T) and the ~ 3 kb retrotransposon insertion in the 3 ‘UTR at position NM_001079802 .1: c. * 4392_ * 4393. 90367 GAA: Analysis includes the promoter variant NM_000152.3: c.-32-13T> G as well as the common exon 18 deletion. 90367 TTN: Deletion / duplication and sequencing analysis is not offered for exons 153-155 (NM_133378.4). Variants are named relative to the NM_001267550.2 (meta) transcript, but only variants in the coding sequence and intronic boundaries of the clinically relevant NM_133378.4 (N2A) isoform are reported (PMID: 25589632). 90367 90005 .90000 A Review of Recent Findings 90001 90002 Phantom limb pain (PLP) is a common phenomenon occurring after the amputation of a limb and can be accompanied by serious suffering. Psychological factors have been shown to play an important role in other types of chronic pain, where they are pivotal in the acquisition and maintenance of pain symptoms. For PLP, however, the interaction between pain and psychological variables is less well documented. In this review, we summarize research on the role of emotional, motivational, cognitive, and perceptual factors in PLP.The reported findings indicate that emotional factors modulate PLP but might be less important compared to other types of chronic pain. Additional factors such as the amount of disability and adjustment to the amputation appear to also play a role. Bidirectional relationships between stress and PLP have been shown quite consistently, and the potential of stress and tension reduction in PLP treatment could be further exploited. Little is known about the role of cognitive variables such as attention or expectation.Catastrophizing seems to aggravate PLP and could be targeted in treatment. Body perception is altered in PLP and poses a potential target for novel mechanistic treatments. More research on psychological factors and their interactions in PLP is needed. 90003 90004 1. Introduction 90005 90002 The amputation of a limb represents a serious disruption of body integrity and is associated with a number of negative consequences, particularly disability and postamputation pain. Although severe chronic residual limb pain is rare (occurring in less than 10% of the amputees), the majority of amputees (above two-thirds) report at least mild residual limb pain [1].As a consequence of changes in the posture and strain of the remaining body parts, secondary pain is reported by a high proportion of the amputees, with high rates (more than 20% each) of pain in the remaining limbs, the shoulders, and the neck or the upper back [2, 3]. Almost all amputees also report about ongoing awareness of a phantom limb, with 60-80% complaining about phantom limb pain (PLP), that is, a painful sensation perceived in the amputated limb and thus located outside the physical borders of the body [4 -6].PLP usually begins early after an amputation (e.g., [7]), and in most amputees, PLP becomes chronic with a large variability in intensity, frequency, and quality [6, 8]. PLP leads to personal suffering [9], reduced quality of life [10], and impairs sleep [6]. PLP is still a challenge for pain research and treatment. 90003 90002 Neuroplastic changes occurring in the brain after an amputation have been a major focus in PLP research for the last two decades (for reviews, see [11, 12]). In contrast, less research has focused on psychological factors, and although they play an important role in other types of chronic pain, for example, chronic musculoskeletal pain (e.g., [13-15]), their role in PLP remains less well studied and less well understood (e.g., [16]). Furthermore, review articles directly addressing psychological factors in PLP are rare. Sherman et al. [17] and Hill [18] reviewed and critically discussed evidence from earlier studies and showed that PLP can not be related to unresolved grief due to limb loss, denial, psychosomatic manifestations, pathological misinterpretation of somatic sensations, or personality disorders (eg, [19 -21]). The proposed relationship between personality factors and PLP could not be substantiated ([17]; for a discussion, see [18]).90003 90002 Since the reviews cited above [17, 18] have been published two and three decades ago, respectively, the present work focuses and summarizes the research on the role of psychological variables from the late 90s to the present. We further focus on emotional factors, motivational aspects such as stress and stress coping, cognitive factors, and the role of body perception in the development and maintenance of chronic PLP and its potential for treatment approaches. 90003 90004 2. Emotional Factors 90005 90002 Much research on emotional processing in chronic pain has focused on comorbid anxiety and depression, which have a high prevalence in chronic pain (cf.[22-24]). For example, a health survey in a representative German sample [25] found an interview-based [26] prevalence of 8.1% for chronic pain disorder. Compared to the healthy population, the 12-month prevalence for anxiety disorders was significantly elevated in both male (33% versus 7%, odds ratio = 5.65) and female (37% versus 20%, odds ratio = 2.69) chronic pain patients. Mood disorders were also significantly more prevalent in chronic pain patients compared to pain-free participants (men: 30% versus 7%, odds ratio = 5.48; women: 30% versus 15%, odds ratio = 2.69). In line with the role of anxiety and mood disturbances (especially depression) in chronic pain, similar relationships can also be expected for chronic PLP. In the following sections, we will summarize findings on the role of depression and anxiety in PLP and will show that it is important to take specific characteristics of the sample into account, especially whether the sample consisted of amputees in early or later stages after amputation and whether concomitant pain was present.90003 90004 2.1. Depression and Anxiety in Early-Stage Amputees 90005 90002 Especially in early stages after amputation, comorbidity rates of mental disorders in amputees can be related to factors other than PLP. Factors like chronic diseases leading to the amputation, traumatization, secondary pain, disability caused by the amputation, and adaptation to the new situation can give rise to anxiety and depression independently of PLP. The modulation of pain by emotional factors may therefore be different in early and late stage amputees.For example, Shukla et al. [27] reported high rates of depression (about 50%) and anxiety (above 35%) in amputees in the postoperative phase, regardless of PLP. In contrast, in samples that were more heterogeneous in age, time since amputation, or the cause of amputation, prevalence rates for depression and anxiety were lower than the rates reported by Shukla et al. [27] for recently amputated participants. For example, a prevalence of 19% was reported for depressive symptoms [28] and of 24% for both depression and anxiety symptoms [29].In these studies, the association of depression and anxiety with PLP (which is most prevalent shortly after amputation [1]) has not been specifically investigated. Consequently, recent amputations should be seen as a special case, and in fact, there is evidence that depression in the postamputation phase is more strongly related to concerns about disability than PLP [28, 30, 31]. However, a different relationship has been observed for preamputation anxiety. Raichle et al. [32] investigated the relationship between overall anxiety levels prior to lower limb amputation and PLP and found that they were positively related particularly with PLP intensity (up to five days after amputation), even when postoperative analgesic medication was controlled for.The analysis of the interplay between emotional states and PLP can be better determined in later stages, when disability and adaptation to the new situation are no longer dominating topics. However, even in later stages, PLP is frequently related to disability and it is important to consider both disability- and pain-related issues. 90003 90004 2.2. Depression in Later Stages after Amputation 90005 90002 As already stated, symptoms of depression are common in the acute phase after an amputation.However, several studies showed that the rates of depressive symptoms decline during the following years. Horgan and MacLachlan [33] published a review on psychosocial adjustments following lower limb amputations and concluded that depression in the first years after amputation is most strongly associated with disability and that, by two years after amputation, depression rates have dropped to a level comparable to those of healthy people. However, even at later stages, it is important to distinguish between disability, somatic symptoms, pain, and depression.Whyte and Niven [31] used the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI [34]) to assess depressive symptoms in a sample of amputees with PLP in the chronic stage. They observed a significant positive correlation of PLP and BDI scores; however, they found that this correlation was mainly driven by PLP being correlated with items of the BDI that assess performance or somatic symptoms that are often seen in chronic pain. The problem that the BDI (and possibly other depression scales as well) tends to overestimate depression in samples with physical diseases and chronic pain has been pointed out before [35].This highlights that the diagnostic instrument needs to be taken into account in the interpretation of studies on amputees and that psychopathology might be overestimated due to somatic symptoms associated with amputations. Desmond and MacLachlan [36] used the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS [37]) to screen for anxiety and depression and the Impact of Event Scale [38] to assess the severity of posttraumatic stress. They tested a sample comprising exclusively older male amputees (90003.